Long cycle-life lithium sulfur solid state electrochemical cell

ABSTRACT

In a solid-state lithium-metal/sulfur-based battery cell, barriers to sulfur and polysulfide diffusion are included in or used as an ionically conductive electrolyte in the cathode or separator layers. During operation of the battery, the barrier materials are positioned to either 1) rapidly react with any free sulfur or lithium polysulfide species that are generated, forming stable carbon-sulfur bond(s) and preventing further migration of the sulfur or polysulfide species or 2) prevent the formation and diffusion of elemental sulfur or free lithium polysulfide species. Regardless of the identity of the sulfur/polysulfide species, the sulfur-containing species is prevented from diffusing to the anode and causing capacity fade and higher internal resistance to ion flow.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/260,918 filed, Apr. 24, 2014. This application also claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/981,732, filed Apr. 18, 2014 and 61/981,735 filed Apr. 18, 2014. All of these patent applications are incorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Field of the Invention

This invention relates generally to lithium metal electrochemical cells, and, more specifically, to sulfur-based cathodes in lithium metal batteries with polymeric electrolytes.

Sulfur-based materials are attractive cathode active materials for lithium batteries due to their high lithium capacities. For example the theoretical lithium capacity for elemental sulfur is 1675 mAh/g, and capacities for sulfur compounds can be as high as 800 mAh/g or so, as compared with capacities around 170 mAh/g for conventionally used cathode materials such as lithium iron phosphate. However, lithium batteries that have sulfur-based cathodes tend to have poor cycling stability due to the formation and migration of lithium polysulfide salts (e.g., LiSx, 3<x<8) as well as the formation and/or diffusion of elemental sulfur out of the cathode layer. These unbound sulfur-containing species separate from the cathode layer, causing irreversible capacity loss, and can migrate to the anode and decompose, causing an increase in internal ionic resistance of the cell or outright decomposition of the anode.

Lithium metal-based materials are attractive anode active materials for lithium batteries due to their high specific capacities of 3860 mAh/g. Coupling lithium metal anodes to sulfur-containing cathodes would provide a very high specific capacity cell, and would result in a high specific energy cell. However, stable cycling and safe operation of batteries containing lithium metal have proved elusive, no matter what cathode material is used, due to either a reaction of the lithium metal with the electrolyte or formation of lithium dendrites upon cycling.

Improvements in stability, cyclability and lifetime of lithium-sulfur batteries are usually sought through the use of sulfur composites in which inactive materials are combined with sulfur to prevent diffusion of polysulfide and sulfur species. Examples include using carbon structures or other molecular encaging species that can physically and/or chemically sequester sulfur and/or lithium polysulfides, or can react with sulfur to form immobile species such as graphite or cyclized PAN that chemically sequester the sulfur. Another example is using single-ion conductors that allow transport of Li cations, but not anions or elemental sulfur species. Examples of such single-ion conductors include Li₃N, LISICON, LIPON, Thio-LISICON, Li₂S—P₂S₅, and the like. Suppression of lithium dendrites has been attempted by use of high modulus electrolytes such as cross-linked PEO, block copolymer electrolytes, and inorganic conductors.

What is really needed is a way to take full advantage of the high lithium capacity of sulfur-containing cathode materials coupled with lithium metal electrodes to make stable, long life cycle electrochemical cells.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and others will be readily appreciated by the skilled artisan from the following description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1A is a schematic drawing of a diblock copolymer molecule, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 1B is a schematic drawing that shows how multiple diblock copolymer molecules, as shown in FIG. 1A, arrange themselves into a domain structure, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 1C is a schematic drawing that shows how multiple repeat domains, as shown in FIG. 1B, form a continuous nanostructured block copolymer material, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2A is a schematic drawing of a triblock copolymer molecule that includes two different polymer blocks, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2B is a schematic drawing that shows how multiple triblock copolymer molecules, as shown in FIG. 2A, arrange themselves into a domain structure, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2C is a schematic drawing that shows how multiple repeat domains, as shown in FIG. 2B, form a continuous nanostructured block copolymer material, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3A is a schematic drawing of a triblock copolymer molecule that includes three different polymer blocks, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3B is a schematic drawing that shows how multiple triblock copolymer molecules, as shown in FIG. 3A, arrange themselves into a domain structure, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3C is a schematic drawing that shows how multiple repeat domains, as shown in FIG. 3B, form a continuous nanostructured block copolymer material, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of a lithium metal cell with a sulfur-based cathode that uses a sulfur-sequestering catholyte, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of a lithium metal cell with a sulfur-based cathode that has a layer of sulfur-sequestering electrolyte between the cathode and the separator, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of a lithium metal cell with a sulfur-based cathode in which individual cathode active material particles are coated with a sulfur-sequestering electrolyte, according to an embodiment of the invention.

SUMMARY

An electrochemical cell is disclosed. The cell has a cathode that contains at least a SPAN cathode active material, an electronically conducting agent, and a first polymer electrolyte that contains a lithium salt, all mixed together. The cell has a lithium anode and a separator positioned between the cell and the anode. The anode may be a lithium metal film.

In one arrangement, the first polymer electrolyte is a liquid and the cell also contains a binder. In another arrangement, the first polymer electrolyte is a solid polymer electrolyte. The separator may contain a second solid polymer electrolyte.

At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may be configured to react chemically with elemental sulfur. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may contain a radical-generating species, such as bromine, TEMPO groups or pendant methacrylate groups.

At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may be configured to react chemically with lithium polysulfide. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may include an electrolyte salt and an ionically conductive polymer that includes an electrophilic group capable of nucleophilic substitution or an ionically conductive polymer that includes an olefinic group capable of polysulfide addition.

At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may be configured to sequester sulfur by physical interaction. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may contain a linear copolymer of carbonates. ethylene oxide (P(LC-EO)), and P(LC-EO)s which incorporate thioethers linkages in addition to ether linkages (P(LC-TEO)). At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may contain a molecule that has a polymer backbone to which polar groups are attached. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may contain a molecule that has a polyether backbone with cyclic carbonates grafted as side groups (P(GC-EO)). The polymer backbone may be any of (P(GN-EO) or P(GP-EO)), polyalkanes, polyphosphazenes, or polysiloxanes. The polar groups may be any of nitrile groups (GN), phosphonate groups (GP), prises poly phosphorus esters.

At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator may be configured to sequester lithium polysulfide by physical interaction. In one arrangement, at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator contains a polyelectrolyte, such as a cationic polymer with counterions such as any of Cl⁻, TFSI⁻, BETI⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, BF₄ ⁻, PF₆ ⁻, Triflate⁻, and BOB⁻. In another arrangement, at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator contains an anionic polymer, such as any of Nafion®, poly(styrene sulfonate), polyvinyl and sulfonate.

In one embodiment of the invention, at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the separator contains a block copolymer that has a first lamellar domain made of first polymer blocks that contain an ionically conductive polymer that includes an electrophilic group capable of nucleophilic substitution and an electrolyte salt and a second lamellar domain made of second polymer blocks, the second domain adjacent the first lamellar domain and forming a structural portion of the electrolyte material. The second polymer blocks may have a component such as styrene, methacrylate, vinylpyridine, vinylcyclohexane, imide, amide, propylene, alphamethylstyrene and combinations thereof. The first lamellar domain and the second lamellar domain may contain a plurality of linear block copolymers, which may be diblock or triblock copolymers.

In one embodiment of the invention, a cathode contains at least SPAN cathode active material, an electronically conducting agent, and a first polymer electrolyte with a lithium salt, all mixed together. There may be a layer of a second polymer electrolyte on the surface of the cathode film that faces the separator layer in the battery. In one arrangement, the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte are the same. There may also be a current collector on the surface of the cathode film that faces away from the separator.

The SPAN material may be mixed with one or more additives such as any of carbon, silica, aluminum oxide, and titanium dioxide, to form a sulfur composite.

The electronically conductive agent may be any of carbon black, graphite, conductive carbons, and conductive polymers. Exemplary conductive polymers include polythiophene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polyphenylene sulfide, and cyclized polyacrylonitrile.

In one arrangement, the cathode contains no fluorinated polymers.

The first polymer electrolyte may be a solid block copolymer that is either a diblock copolymer or a triblock copolymer. The first block of the diblock or triblock copolymer may be ionically conductive, such polyethers, polyamines, polyimides, polyamides, poly(alkyl carbonates), polynitriles, polysiloxanes, polyphosphazenes, polyolefins, polydienes, and combinations thereof. The first block of the diblock or triblock copolymer may be an ionically-conductive comb polymer that has a backbone and pendant groups. The backbone may be any of polysiloxanes, polyphosphazines, polyethers, polydienes, polyolefins, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, and combinations thereof. The pendants may be any of oligoethers, substituted oligoethers, nitrile groups, sulfones, thiols, polyethers, polyamines, polyimides, polyamides, poly(alkyl carbonates), polynitriles, other polar groups, and combinations thereof.

The second block of the diblock or triblock copolymer may be any of polystyrene, hydrogenated polystyrene, polymethacrylate, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyvinylpyridine, polyvinylcyclohexane, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, polyolefins, poly(t-butyl vinyl ether), poly(cyclohexyl methacrylate), poly(cyclohexyl vinyl ether), poly(t-butyl vinyl ether), polyethylene, fluorocarbons, polyvinylidene fluoride, and copolymers that contain styrene, methacrylate, and/or vinylpyridine.

At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte may sequester sulfur or lithium polysulfide by chemical bonding. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte may contain an ionically conductive polymer that includes an olefinic group capable of polysulfide addition and an electrolyte salt. In one arrangement, the ionically conductive polymer includes a first monomer and a second monomer: the first monomer is ionically conductive and the second monomer contains an olefinic group capable of polysulfide addition. The ionically conductive monomer may be any of ethylene oxides, acrylonitriles, phosphoesters, ethers, amines, imides, amides, alkyl carbonates, nitriles, siloxanes, phosphazines, olefins, dienes, and combinations thereof. The olefinic group may be an allyl group, such as an allyloxymethyl and a vinyl group. In one arrangement, at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte contains a radical-generating species, such as any of bromine, TEMPO ((2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxy or (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxidanyl) groups, and pendant methacrylate groups.

At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte may be configured to sequester sulfur or lithium polysulfide physically. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte may contain a molecule that has a polymer backbone to which polar groups are attached. The backbone may be a polyether molecule that has cyclic carbonates grafted as side groups (P(GC-EO)). The polymer backbone may be any of (P(GN-EO), P(GP-EO)), polyalkanes, polyphosphazenes, and polysiloxanes and the polar groups are can be either nitrile groups (GN) or phosphonate groups (GP). The polar groups may be poly phosphorus esters. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte may contain a linear copolymer of carbonates, ethylene oxide (P(LC-EO)), or analogs of P(LC-EO) that incorporate thioethers linkages in addition to ether linkages (P(LC-TEO)). At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte may contain a polyelectrolyte, such as Cl⁻, TFSI⁻, BETI⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, BF₄ ⁻, PF₆ ⁻, Triflate⁻, or BOB⁻. At least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte may contain an anionic polymer, such as any of Nafion®, poly(styrene sulfonate), polyvinyl and sulfonate.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The preferred embodiments are illustrated in the context of lithium metal-sulfur electrochemical cells. The skilled artisan will readily appreciate, however, that the materials and methods disclosed herein will have application in a number of other contexts where diffusion of sulfur or polysulfides is undesirable.

All publications referred to herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes as if fully set forth herein.

In the embodiments of the invention, a lithium metal battery that has a sulfur-based cathode and a sulfur-sequestering electrolyte is disclosed. The electrolyte may be internal to the cathode or it may form a coating between the cathode and the separator. The sulfur-sequestering electrolyte may act in any of a few different ways. It may prevent formation and diffusion of unbound lithium polysulfide and/or elemental sulfur. The sequestration may be physical or it may be chemical. Beneficial aspects of such a battery include high specific capacity and long cycle life.

The term “separator” is used herein to mean either:

-   -   a permeable membrane placed between a battery's anode and         cathode, which is filled with a liquid or gel electrolyte, or     -   the region between a battery's anode and cathode, which is         filled with a solid electrolyte membrane.

The term “solid polymer” is used herein to include solid homopolymers, solid random copolymers and solid block copolymers.

High Energy Cell with Lithium Metal and SPAN Electrodes

In one embodiment of the invention, a cell design combines a lithium metal anode, a block copolymer separator electrolyte, a composite cathode containing sulfur-bound cyclized polyacrylonitrile (SPAN), and a cathode electrolyte (catholyte) that acts as a sulfur and/or polysulfide barrier to prevent loss of elemental sulfur and/or lithium polysulfides from the cathode layer.

Generally, a cathode has at least the following components:

-   -   an electrochemically active cathode material;     -   electronically conductive additives;     -   a polymeric binder to hold the active material and conductive         additives in place; and     -   a current collector backing the electrochemically active         material.

Examples of electronically conductive additives include carbon black, graphite, vapor-grown carbon fiber (VGCF), graphene, SuperP, Printex, Ketjenblack, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Examples of binders include polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyacrylic acid (PAA), alginate, polyethylene oxide (PEO), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), polypropylene oxide, and copolymers thereof. In a dry polymer battery, the polymeric binder may or may not be ionically conductive and may be accompanied by an additional polymer electrolyte (catholyte) that contains a dissolved metal salt and functions as a metal ion transporter. For lithium batteries, lithium salts are used. Typical lithium salts include lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (LiTFSI), lithium bis(perfluoroethanesulfonyl) imide (LiBETI), LiClO₄, LiBF₄, LiPF₆, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (Li triflate), and lithium bis(oxalato) borate (LiBOB). Salts of other metals can be used if other metals form the basis of the cell. Examples of such metals include Na, K, Mg, Ca, and Al.

In a sulfur-based cell, the cathode is generally fabricated in the charged state (oxidized) and requires a source of lithium. Anode choices may include lithium metal foil, lithiated graphite, lithiated silicon, or the like. Use of lithium metal anodes in a rechargeable cell requires a specialized separator that is chemically stable to lithium as well as capable of preventing dendritic growth during charging. Block copolymer electrolytes provide a means of achieving the required mechanical strength and ionic conductivity.

The separator layer between the anode and cathode is an ionically conductive, but electronically insulative layer. Such a layer may be a liquid-electrolyte-soaked porous plastic membrane in conventional lithium-ion cells or a solid polymer electrolyte coating in dry polymer cells. Combinations of these are also possible. For a polymer electrolyte such as PEO that is a viscous liquid or gel with poor mechanical properties, greater mechanical strength can be achieved by forming block copolymers that have a first PEO polymer block that is ionically conductive and a second polymer block that is mechanically-stabilizing. In order for the second block to provide mechanical stability, the cell is operated at a temperature below the melting temperature (T_(m)) for crystalline polymers or the glass transition temperature (T_(g)) for amorphous polymers.

Nanostructured Block Copolymer Electrolytes

FIG. 1A is a simplified illustration of an exemplary diblock polymer molecule 100 that has a first polymer block 110 and a second polymer block 120 covalently bonded together. In one arrangement both the first polymer block 110 and the second polymer block 120 are linear polymer blocks. In another arrangement, either one or both polymer blocks 110, 120 has a comb (or branched) structure. In one arrangement, neither polymer block is cross-linked. In another arrangement, one polymer block is cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, both polymer blocks are cross-linked.

Multiple diblock polymer molecules 100 can arrange themselves to form a first domain 115 of a first phase made of the first polymer blocks 110 and a second domain 125 of a second phase made of the second polymer blocks 120, as shown in FIG. 1B. Diblock polymer molecules 100 can arrange themselves to form multiple repeat domains, thereby forming a continuous nanostructured block copolymer material 140, as shown in FIG. 1C. The sizes or widths of the domains can be adjusted by adjusting the molecular weights of each of the polymer blocks.

In one arrangement the first polymer domain 115 is ionically conductive, and the second polymer domain 125 provides mechanical strength to the nanostructured block copolymer.

FIG. 2A is a simplified illustration of an exemplary triblock polymer molecule 200 that has a first polymer block 210 a, a second polymer block 220, and a third polymer block 210 b that is the same as the first polymer block 210 a, all covalently bonded together. In one arrangement the first polymer block 210 a, the second polymer block 220, and the third copolymer block 210 b are linear polymer blocks. In another arrangement, either some or all polymer blocks 210 a, 220, 210 b have a comb (or branched) structure. In one arrangement, no polymer block is cross-linked. In another arrangement, one polymer block is cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, two polymer blocks are cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, all polymer blocks are cross-linked.

Multiple triblock polymer molecules 200 can arrange themselves to form a first domain 215 of a first phase made of the first polymer blocks 210 a, a second domain 225 of a second phase made of the second polymer blocks 220, and a third domain 215 b of a first phase made of the third polymer blocks 210 b as shown in FIG. 2B. Triblock polymer molecules 200 can arrange themselves to form multiple repeat domains 225, 215 (containing both 215 a and 215 b), thereby forming a continuous nanostructured block copolymer 230, as shown in FIG. 2C. The sizes of the domains can be adjusted by adjusting the molecular weights of each of the polymer blocks.

In one arrangement the first and third polymer domains 215 a, 215 b are ionically conductive, and the second polymer domain 225 provides mechanical strength to the nanostructured block copolymer. In another arrangement, the second polymer domain 225 is ionically conductive, and the first and third polymer domains 215 provide a structural framework.

FIG. 3A is a simplified illustration of another exemplary triblock polymer molecule 300 that has a first polymer block 310, a second polymer block 320, and a third polymer block 330, different from either of the other two polymer blocks, all covalently bonded together. In one arrangement the first polymer block 310, the second polymer block 320, and the third copolymer block 330 are linear polymer blocks. In another arrangement, either some or all polymer blocks 310, 320, 330 have a comb (or branched) structure. In one arrangement, no polymer block is cross-linked. In another arrangement, one polymer block is cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, two polymer blocks are cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, all polymer blocks are cross-linked.

Multiple triblock polymer molecules 300 can arrange themselves to form a first domain 315 of a first phase made of the first polymer blocks 310 a, a second domain 325 of a second phase made of the second polymer blocks 320, and a third domain 335 of a third phase made of the third polymer blocks 330 as shown in FIG. 3B. Triblock polymer molecules 300 can arrange themselves to form multiple repeat domains, thereby forming a continuous nanostructured block copolymer 340, as shown in FIG. 3C. The sizes of the domains can be adjusted by adjusting the molecular weights of each of the polymer blocks.

In one arrangement the first polymer domains 315 are ionically conductive, and the second polymer domains 325 provide mechanical strength to the nanostructured block copolymer. The third polymer domains 335 provides an additional functionality that may improve mechanical strength, ionic conductivity, chemical or electrochemical stability, may make the material easier to process, or may provide some other desirable property to the block copolymer. In other arrangements, the individual domains can exchange roles.

Choosing appropriate polymers for the block copolymers described above is important in order to achieve desired electrolyte properties. In one embodiment, the conductive polymer (1) exhibits ionic conductivity of at least 10⁻⁵ Scm⁻¹ at electrochemical cell operating temperatures when combined with an appropriate salt(s), such as lithium salt(s); (2) is chemically stable against such salt(s); and (3) is thermally stable at electrochemical cell operating temperatures. In one embodiment, the structural material has a modulus in excess of 1×10⁵ Pa at electrochemical cell operating temperatures. In one embodiment, the third polymer (1) is rubbery; and (2) has a glass transition temperature lower than operating and processing temperatures. It is useful if all materials are mutually immiscible.

In one embodiment of the invention, the conductive phase can be made of a linear or branched polymer. Conductive linear or branched polymers that can be used in the conductive phase include, but are not limited to, polyethers, polyamines, polyimides, polyamides, alkyl carbonates, polynitriles, and combinations thereof. The conductive linear or branched polymers can also be used in combination with polysiloxanes, polyphosphazines, polyolefins, and/or polydienes to form the conductive phase.

In another exemplary embodiment, the conductive phase is made of comb (or branched) polymers that have a backbone and pendant groups. Backbones that can be used in these polymers include, but are not limited to, polysiloxanes, polyphosphazines, polyethers, polydienes, polyolefins, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, and combinations thereof. Pendants that can be used include, but are not limited to, oligoethers, substituted oligoethers, nitrile groups, sulfones, thiols, polyethers, polyamines, polyimides, polyamides, alkyl carbonates, polynitriles, other polar groups, and combinations thereof.

Further details about polymers that can be used in the conductive phase can be found in International Patent Application Number PCT/US09/45356, filed May 27, 2009, International Patent Application Number PCT/US09/54709, filed Aug. 22, 2009, International Patent Application Number PCT/US10/21065, filed Jan. 14, 2010, International Patent Application Number PCT/US10/21070, filed Jan. 14, 2010, U.S. International Patent Application Number PCT/U510/25680, filed Feb. 26, 2009, and U.S. International Patent Application Number PCT/US10/25690, filed Feb. 26, 2009, all of which are included by reference herein.

There are no particular restrictions on the electrolyte salt that can be used in the block copolymer electrolytes. Any electrolyte salt that includes the ion identified as the most desirable charge carrier for the application can be used. It is especially useful to use electrolyte salts that have a large dissociation constant within the polymer electrolyte.

Suitable examples include alkali metal salts, such as Li salts. Examples of useful Li salts include, but are not limited to, LiPF₆, LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂, Li(CF₃SO₂)₃C, LiN(SO₂CF₂CF₃)₂, LiB(C₂O₄)₂, Li₂B₁₂F_(x)H_(12-x), Li₂B₁₂F₁₂, and mixtures thereof.

In one embodiment of the invention, single ion conductors can be used with electrolyte salts or instead of electrolyte salts. Examples of single ion conductors include, but are not limited to sulfonamide salts, boron based salts, and sulfates.

In one embodiment of the invention, the structural phase can be made of glassy or crystalline polymers such as polystyrene, hydrogenated polystyrene, polymethacrylate, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyvinylpyridine, polyvinylcyclohexane, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, poly (2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) (PXE), polyolefins, poly(t-butyl vinyl ether), poly(cyclohexyl methacrylate), poly(cyclohexyl vinyl ether), polyethylene, fluorocarbons, such as polyvinylidene fluoride, or copolymers that contain styrene, methacrylate, or vinylpyridine.

Additional species can be added to nanostructured block copolymer electrolytes to enhance the ionic conductivity, to enhance the mechanical properties, or to enhance any other properties that may be desirable.

The ionic conductivity of nanostructured block copolymer electrolyte materials can be improved by including one or more additives in the ionically conductive phase. An additive can improve ionic conductivity by lowering the degree of crystallinity, lowering the melting temperature, lowering the glass transition temperature, increasing chain mobility, or any combination of these. A high dielectric additive can aid dissociation of the salt, increasing the number of Li+ ions available for ion transport, and reducing the bulky Li+[salt] complexes. Additives that weaken the interaction between Li+ and PEO chains/anions, thereby making it easier for Li+ ions to diffuse, may be included in the conductive phase. The additives that enhance ionic conductivity can be broadly classified in the following categories: low molecular weight conductive polymers, ceramic particles, room temp ionic liquids (RTILs), high dielectric organic plasticizers, and Lewis acids.

Other additives can be used in the polymer electrolytes described herein. For example, additives that help with overcharge protection, provide stable SEI (solid electrolyte interface) layers, and/or improve electrochemical stability can be used. Such additives are well known to people with ordinary skill in the art. Additives that make the polymers easier to process, such as plasticizers, can also be used.

Further details about block copolymer electrolytes are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/225,934, filed Oct. 1, 2008, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/2,711,828, filed Nov. 14, 2008, and International Patent Application Number PCT/US09/31356, filed Jan. 16, 2009, all of which are included by reference herein.

SPAN Cathode Active Material

If the cathode of a lithium-sulfur cell consisted completely of elemental sulfur, in theory, an energy density of more than 1,000 Wh/kg could be achieved. However, sulfur is neither ionically nor electrically conductive, so a sulfur cathode includes additives that supply these properties and which lower the the energy density. In addition, during the discharge of a lithium-sulfur cell, elemental sulfur is usually reduced to soluble polysulfides. The polysulfides can diffuse into other regions of the cell (and can even reach the anode), where they are no longer able to participate in the electrochemical reactions of subsequent charge/discharge cycles. In addition, polysulfides may be dissolved in the electrolyte, where they cannot be reduced further. Therefore, at present, the energy density of lithium-sulfur cells is much lower than the theoretical value, and is estimated to be between 400 Wh/kg and 600 Wh/kg. Even worse, the service life of lithium-sulfur cells may be limited to as few as 100 complete cycles or even less. Cycle life may be affected by diffusion of polysulfides from the cathode to the anode where they can react with the lithium metal anode and shorten its life. Sulfur utilization in lithium-sulfur battery cells can be significantly increased when the sulfur is bound to cyclized polyacrylonitrile. Thus it is advantageous to use polyacrylonitrile-sulfur (SPAN) composite as a cathode active material.

In one embodiment, the cathode active material contains a polyacrylonitrile-sulfur (SPAN) composite. SPAN is a composite material that is produced by reacting polyacrylonitrile (PAN) with sulfur (S). SPAN material has sulfur-carbon bonds which can bond polysulfides to the SPAN polymer matrix. In such a SPAN composite, the sulfur is fixedly bonded to a polymer structure on a sub-nanometer/nanometer scale. In addition the sulfur is finely or homogeneously distributed within the SPAN structure. SPAN has been shown to offer good cycling stability with a high sulfur utilization rate. In addition, SPAN has shown such good performance even at high discharge rates (C rates).

In one embodiment of the invention, SPAN is produced by reacting polyacrylonitrile with an excess of sulfur at a temperature greater than or equal to 300° C. In some arrangements, temperatures greater than or 550° C. are used. The ratio of excess sulfur to polyacrylonitrile that is used depends on the reaction temperature. The sulfur atoms may be in the polyacrylonitrile-sulfur composite material both directly by covalent sulfur-carbon bonds, as well as indirectly through one or more covalent bonds, sulfur-sulfur and one or more sulfur-carbon bonds may be connected to a particular cyclized polyacrylonitrile. In this case, at least a portion of the sulfur atoms of the SPAN composite material, for example in the form of polysulfides, is covalently linked to a cyclized polyacrylonitrile. In such composite materials are indications of sulfur-carbon bond, which tie the polysulfides to the polymer matrix. Consequently, there is a sulfur polyacrylonitrile composite having various functional groups and chemical bonds, which can all have different properties with respect to electrochemical performance, and aging behavior.

In another embodiment of the invention, SPAN composite material is produced by (a) converting polyacrylonitrile to cyclized polyacrylonitrile, and (b) converting the cyclized polyacrylonitrile with sulfur to form a polyacrylonitrile-sulfur composite material. In step (a), an electrically conductive cyclized polyacrylonitrile (cPAN) base is formed. In step (b), the cPAN is reacted with electrochemically active sulfur takes place, bonding the sulfur covalently to the electrically conductive skeleton of the cPAN, thus forming polyacrylonitrile-sulfur composite material (SPAN). By using a two-step method, reaction conditions can be optimized for each partial reaction. It may be interesting to note that step (a) is similar to a dehydrogenation reaction known from the preparation of carbon fiber, and step (b) is similar to a reaction from a different technical field, namely the vulcanization reaction of rubber

This cell design has numerous embodiments related to different architectural configurations of a barrier catholyte as well as numerous mechanistic processes for preventing loss of sulfur and/or polysulfides. Different catholyte materials or additives can be used to capture sulfur species and prevent capacity fade.

The embodiments of the invention include various solid polymer electrolyte materials that can be used as active or passive barriers to prevent sulfur/polysulfide loss. Such polymers may or may not be cross-linked. In general the disclosed materials and related mechanism for preventing sulfur loss can be classified into two groups: active (or chemical) and passive (or physical) barriers to prevent sulfur/polysulfide loss. It should be understood that for any such polymer material disclosed below, various structural configurations are possible. For example, the monomers that make up any such polymer may be organized as random copolymers or in blocks to make block copolymer structures. In addition, the polymers (and the monomers therein) disclosed below may be combined with yet other polymers to form random copolymer or block copolymer structures.

Active Barriers for Lithium Polysulfides

In one embodiment, a catholyte polymer is an active polysulfide barrier that captures unbound lithium polysulfides by chemical reaction (actively). During operation of a battery cell, reactive groups of the catholyte are available to react rapidly with any free lithium polysulfide species that are generated, forming stable carbon-sulfur bonds, thus sequestering the polysulfides and preventing migration of the polysulfide species away from the cathode. Depending on the particular polysulfide species that are sequestered, there may still be enough capacity left in the cathode that the battery can continue to cycle at an acceptable, though reduced capacity relative to the original cathode.

In one example of the invention the catholyte is an epichlorohydrin-ethylene oxide copolymer (P(EC-EO)). The structure of P(EC-EO) is:

wherein n is the total number of repeat units, and x is the mole fraction of EO units, leaving 1-x as the mole fraction of EC units. Values of x can range from 0 to 0.99, and values of n can range from about 10 to 200,000 or greater. P(EC-EO) can be dissolved in common organic solvents, and the solution can be useful for forming coatings. The structure of P(EC-EO) represents a perturbation of the poly(ethylene oxide) homopolymer, which is a known lithium ion conductor when mixed with a lithium salt. The pendant chloromethyl groups derived from the epichlorohydrin monomers only modestly decrease the lithium ion conductivity of the polymer relative to PEO homopolymer, as long as the mole ratio of EC (1-x) is kept low (e.g., 0<1-x<0.5).

The pendant chloromethyl group of the EC portion of P(EC-EO) is electrophilic, meaning that a nucleophilic unit (“Nu-”) can displace a chloride ion while forming a new bond to the adjacent carbon atom:

Unbound lithium polysulfide species generated during operation of lithium-sulfur batteries (general formula “Li_(m)S_(y)”, m=1 or 2, y=3 to 8) are known to be good nucleophiles. If they are formed in the cathode in the presence of a P(EC-EO) binder, it is highly likely that reactions similar to the following will take place (as a spectator ion, Li⁺ is not included in the reaction):

The substitution reaction is expected to be permanent: the C—S bond does not break under normal cell operating conditions. The polysulfide species has thus been trapped in the cathode, is still in electrical contact with the cathode, and cannot migrate or diffuse to the anode. The formation of the C—S bond causes an irreversible loss in cathode capacity as the sulfur can no longer be fully oxidized, but this loss is smaller than what would result from diffusion of the entire polysulfide species away from the cathode. Therefore, a sulfur or sulfur composite cathode formulated with some portion of a P(EC-EO) polymer has higher stability than one made without, due to the reduced diffusion of lithium polysulfide species away from the cathode.

While the above describes one example, there are other structures that satisfy general criteria of an electrophilic group susceptible to nucleophilic substitution incorporated into an ionically conductive polymer. The P(EC-EO) structure can be generalized to

in which the electrophilic methyl group is substituted with, for example, Z=chloride, bromide, iodide, methanesulfonate, p-methyltoluenesulfonate, or p-nitrobenzenesulfonate. These can be synthesized using precursors such as epichlorohydrin, epibromohydrin, and glycidol. Other halide-bearing structures exhibit a similar capability to undergo nucleophilic substitution, such as vinyl-chloride monomer groups.

PEG-brush polyacrylates and polymethacrylates of the following structure satisfy similar criteria, wherein the PEG side chains provide ionic conductivity and alternative side chains provide the electrophilic component:

in which R═H (acrylate) or Me (methacrylate), x is the mole ratio of the PEG monomer component ranging from values of 0 to 0.99, n has the same values as above, 2<k<50 is the number of repeat units in the PEG side chain, and R^(Z) is an electrophilic group susceptible to substitution by polysulfide such as: 2-chloroethyl, 2-bromoethyl, ω-chloropoly(ethylene glycol), ω-bromopoly(ethylene glycol), ω-methanesulfonatopoly(ethylene glycol), ω-(p-toluenesulfonato)poly(ethylene glycol), glycidyl, or ω-glycidylpoly(ethylene glycol).

PEG-brush poly(vinyl ethers) of the following structure satisfy similar criteria, wherein the PEG side chains provide ionic conductivity and alternative side chains provide the electrophilic component:

in which x is the mole ratio of the PEG monomer component having the same values as above, n has the same values as above, 2<k<50 is the number of repeat units in the PEG side chain, and R^(Z) is an electrophilic group susceptible to substitution by polysulfide such as: 2-chloroethyl, 2-bromoethyl, ω-chloropoly(ethylene glycol), ω-bromopoly(ethylene glycol), ω-methanesulfonatopoly(ethylene glycol), ω-(p-toluenesulfonato)poly(ethylene glycol), glycidyl, or ω-glycidylpoly(ethylene glycol).

PEG-brush polyphosphazenes and PEG-brush polycarbonates can follow similar substitution patterns:

in which x, k, n, and R^(Z) are as defined previously, and R^(C) is a short alkyl chain, a short alkyl chain bearing an acyl side group, or a short PEG chain.

Polyphosphoesters can also be included of the type:

in which R=alkyl C₁-C4, R^(Z) and n are as defined previously, and x and 1-x are the mole ratios of the monomers defined previously. These polymers are differentiated by the reactivity of the phosphoester backbone, as a polysulfide nucleophile could, by substitution, cleave C—O bonds in the backbone or the —OR group instead of reacting only with the electrophilic R^(Z) side chain.

Polyacrylonitrile can be copolymerized with chlorinated vinyl monomers to make polymers similar to:

in which x and 1-x are the mole fractions of the monomers, in which x can range from 0.01 to 1. The value n is defined previously. The chloride group in the backbone can be displaced by a polysulfide nucleophile, while polyacrylonitrile is an ionically conductive polymer.

Olefin containing polymers can also be included. In one example of the invention the catholyte is an allyl glycidyl ether-ethylene oxide copolymer (P(AGE-EO)). The structure of P(AGE-EO) is:

wherein n is the total number of repeat units having values defined above, and x is the mole fraction of EO units leaving 1-x as the mole fraction of AGE units, in which x can range from 0 to 0.99. The structure of P(AGE-EO) represents a perturbation of the poly(ethylene oxide) homopolymer, which is a known lithium ion conductor when mixed with a lithium salt. The pendant allyloxymethyl groups derived from the AGE monomers only modestly decrease the lithium ion conductivity of the polymer relative to PEO homopolymer, as long as the mole ratio of AGE (1-x) is kept low (e.g. 0<1-x<0.5). It is an example of an olefin, the common name for the functional group consisting of 2 carbon atoms forming a double bond. Olefins are susceptible to a number of reactions, include radical-induced polymerization, addition reactions, and cycloaddition reactions.

Lithium polysulfide species are capable of addition reactions to olefins as has been described in de Graaf, “Laboratory simulation of natural sulphurization: I. Formation of monomeric and oligomeric isoprenoid polysulphides by low-temperature reactions of inorganic polysulphides with phytol and phytadienes,” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1992, 56, 4321-4328 and in de Graaf, “Low-temperature addition of hydrogen polysulfides to olefins: formation of 2,2′-dialkyl polysulfides from alk-1-enes and cyclic (poly)sulfides and polymeric organic sulfur compounds from α,ω-dienes,” J. Chem. Soc. Perkin. Trans. 1 1995, 635-640. This is similar to the industrial process of rubber vulcanization, in which sulfur is used to form crosslinks in natural latex (polyisoprene) as described in Carroll, “Polysulfides—Nature's organic soluble sulfur,” Phosphorus, Sulfur and Silicon and Related Elements 1994, 95, 517-518. If polysulfides are formed in the cathode in the presence of a P(AGE-EO) binder, it is possible for reactions similar to the following to take place:

In this reaction, a portion of the polysulfide Li_(m)S_(y) (m=1 or 2, y=3 to 8) reacts to form a sulfur link between carbon atoms, with a depreciated lithium polysulfide being the co-product. The AGE-sulfur addition reactions are expected to be permanent: a C—S bond does not break under normal cell operating conditions. A portion of the polysulfide species has thus been trapped in the cathode, is still in electrical contact with the cathode, and cannot migrate or diffuse to the anode. The formation of the C—S bond causes an irreversible loss in cathode capacity as the sulfur can no longer be fully oxidized, but this loss is smaller than what would result from diffusion of the entire polysulfide species away from the cathode. The lithium polysulfide co-product is more fully reduced than the original lithium polysulfide and is likely to be Li₂S₂ or Li₂S species, which have poor solubility and mobility, and will therefore tend to stop diffusing out of the cathode and may be trapped by other mechanisms proposed herein. Therefore, a sulfur or sulfur composite cathode formulated with some portion of a P(AGE-EO) polymer may be expected to show higher stability than one made without, due to the reduced diffusion of lithium polysulfide species away from the cathode.

A person of ordinary skill in the art will understand that there are many other structures that satisfy general criteria of an electrophilic group or an olefinic group susceptible to polysulfide addition incorporated into an ionically conductive polymer.

Active Barriers for Elemental Sulfur

In another embodiment, an additional active mechanism serves to capture elemental sulfur through chemical reaction (actively). If elemental sulfur is formed during charging of the battery, it can diffuse out of the cathode causing capacity loss and eventually react at the surface of the anode causing resistance increase and anode decomposition. During operation of the battery cell, reactive groups of the catholyte are positioned to react rapidly with any elemental sulfur species that are generated, forming stable carbon-sulfur bonds and preventing further migration of the sulfur species. Sulfur bound in the catholyte in this way may still be available for further electrochemical activity during cycling of the battery cell.

In one embodiment of the invention, the catholyte contains a radical-generating species that is active at operating temperatures of the cell. In one example, the catholyte contains bromine, TEMPO groups or pendant methacrylate groups. Representative examples include polymers with the following structures:

If elemental sulfur species form during operation of the cell, radical generating species such as those described herein may react with the elemental sulfur creating C—S bonds thus preventing loss of the sulfur from the cathode. The formation of the C—S bond causes an irreversible loss in cathode capacity as the sulfur can no longer be fully oxidized, but this loss is smaller than what would result from diffusion of the entire sulfur species away from the cathode. Therefore, a sulfur or sulfur composite cathode formulated with some portion of a radical forming polymer may be expected to show higher stability than one made without such a polymer, due to the reduced diffusion of sulfur species away from the cathode.

Passive Barriers for Lithium Polysulfides

In another embodiment, the cell uses a catholyte that acts as a passive (or physical) barrier to diffusion of lithium polysulfides. During discharge of the battery, free lithium polysulfide species may be generated. Due to polarity and/or specific interactions of the catholyte and the unbound lithium polysulfides, the catholyte limits the dissolution of the lithium polysulfide species forming it into a precipitate and preventing migration of the polysulfide species out of the cathode. The choice of catholyte can also affect the regioselectivity of the reduction of sulfur species. For example, proper choice of catholyte may result in formation of low index lithium polysulfides that have poorer solubility, resulting in entrapment in the cathode layer.

In one embodiment of the invention the catholyte is a polyelectrolyte or a polymerized ionic liquid. Representative examples include cationic polymers with the following structures, in which X is an anion such as Cl⁻, TFSI⁻, BETI⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, BF₄ ⁻, PF₆ ⁻, Triflate⁻, BOB⁻, and the like.

Alternative choices for catholytes that affect polysulfide formation and diffusion are anionic polymers such as Nafion®, poly(styrene sulfonate), polyvinyl sulfonate, and the like. Representative examples include anionic polymers with the following structures:

The advantage of passive barriers for lithium polysulfides as compared to active barriers is that they do not reduce the capacity of the cathode, in that no reduction of the polysulfide occurs.

Passive Barriers for Elemental Sulfur

In another embodiment, the cathode uses a catholyte that acts as a passive barrier to diffusion of elemental sulfur. During charging of the battery, free sulfur species S_(x) (e.g., elemental sulfur) may be generated. Such a catholyte has low solubility for elemental sulfur, so there is little dissolution of the elemental sulfur species. Instead sulfur precipitates are formed, preventing migration of the sulfur species out of the cathode. Low solubility can be achieved if the catholyte is highly polar. Polarity of materials may be quantified by their dielectric constant. For example a low polarity material may have a dielectric constant of around 8 or less, while a highly polar material may have a dielectric constant greater than about 30. In one arrangement, such polarity is effected when a high concentration of salt species is dissolved in the catholyte. In another arrangement, a polymer that is intrinsically polar is used as the catholyte. For the embodiments of the invention, as disclosed herein, polar materials are considered to have low enough solubility of sulfur to be useful as physical barriers to elemental sulfur diffusion when they have a dielectric constant greater than 20, or greater than 25, or greater than 30, or any range therein.

In one embodiment of the invention the catholyte is a linear copolymer of carbonates and ethylene oxide (P(LC-EO)). In another example different analogs of P(LC-EO) can be used which incorporate thioethers linkages in addition to ether linkages (P(LC-TEO)). Examples of some structure of these types are:

In another embodiment, polar groups are attached to a polymer backbone, resulting in increased polarity, which reduces elemental sulfur solubility. In one arrangement, the catholyte is a polyether backbone with cyclic carbonates grafted as side groups (P(GC-EO)). In another arrangement, different polar groups such as nitrile groups (GN) or phosphonate groups (GP) are grafted off the backbone polymer (P(GN-EO) or P(GP-EO)). Alternative backbones such as polyalkanes, polyphosphazenes, or polysiloxanes may be used. Representative examples of structure of these types include:

in which n and x have the values as described above.

In another embodiment, poly phosphorus esters are used as catholytes to limit elemental sulfur dissolution and diffusion. Representative examples of different structure of these types are:

in which R=methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl, etc.

Cell Architecture and Barrier Configurations

A barrier layer preventing sulfur loss from a cathode can be configured in a variety of ways. A catholyte material which prohibits diffusion of lithium polysulfides or elemental sulfur may be located in different regions of the cathode depending on its properties like conductivity, binding ability, and surface compatibility with other cell components.

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of a lithium metal cell 400 with a sulfur-based cathode 420 that uses a sulfur-sequestering catholyte 430, according to an embodiment of the invention. The cell 400 also has a lithium metal anode 440 and a separator 450 between the anode 440 and the cathode 420. The sulfur-sequestering catholyte 430 is included in the bulk of the cathode 420 and can be seen as light grey stripes. The cathode 420 also has sulfur-containing active material particles 423 and electronically conductive particles 426. In one arrangement, the cathode active material particles 423 are made of SPAN. The cathode 420 may also contain additional electrolytes or binders (not shown). There may also be a current collector 460 adjacent to the cathode 420.

FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of a lithium metal cell 500 with a sulfur-based cathode 520 that uses a sulfur-sequestering electrolyte, according to another embodiment of the invention. The cell 500 also has a lithium metal anode 540 and a separator 550 between the anode 540 and the cathode 520. There is a layer of sulfur-sequestering electrolyte 530 between the separator 550 and the cathode 520 and can be seen as light grey stripes. The cathode 520 has sulfur-containing active material particles 523 and electronically conductive particles 526. In one arrangement, the cathode active material particles 523 are made of SPAN. The cathode 520 also contains a second electrolyte 529 and may contain binders (not shown). There may also be a current collector 560 adjacent to the cathode 520.

FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of a lithium metal cell 600 with a sulfur-based cathode 620 that uses a sulfur-sequestering catholyte, according to another embodiment of the invention. The cell 600 also has a lithium metal anode 640 and a separator 650 between the anode 640 and the cathode 620. The cathode 620 has sulfur-containing active material particles 623 and electronically conductive particles 626. In one arrangement, the cathode active material particles 623 are made of SPAN. The sulfur-containing active material particles 623 are coated with a layer of sulfur-sequestering catholyte 630, which can be seen as dark grey edges 630 around the particles 623. In some arrangements, a charge transfer tie-layer (not shown) may be used to improve charge transfer between the catholyte coating 630 and the cathode particles 623. The cathode 620 also contains a second electrolyte 629 and may contain binders (not shown). There may also be a current collector 660 adjacent to the cathode 620.

In another embodiment, two or more of the barrier configurations, as shown in FIGS. 4, 5, and 6 are used in the same cell. For example, a catholyte particle coating may be used to minimize the amount of elemental sulfur that is formed. In addition a catholyte binder may be used to act as a barrier to elemental sulfur diffusion. Finally, an overcoat layer may be used to prevent lithium polysulfide and elemental sulfur diffusion.

This invention has been described herein in considerable detail to provide those skilled in the art with information relevant to apply the novel principles and to construct and use such specialized components as are required. However, it is to be understood that the invention can be carried out by different equipment, materials and devices, and that various modifications, both as to the equipment and operating procedures, can be accomplished without departing from the scope of the invention itself. 

We claim:
 1. An electrochemical cell comprising a cathode comprising: a sulfur-bound cyclized polyacrylonitrile cathode active material; an electronically conducting agent; and a first polymer electrolyte that contains a first lithium salt; wherein the sulfur-bound cyclized polyacrylonitrile, the electronically conducting agent, and the first polymer electrolyte are all mixed together to form the cathode; an anode comprising lithium; and a separator comprising a second polymer electrolyte and a second lithium salt, the separator positioned between the cathode and the anode, the separator providing ionic conduction between the cathode and the anode.
 2. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 further comprising a layer of a third polymer electrolyte on a first surface of the cathode, the first surface of the cathode facing the separator.
 3. The electrochemical cell of claim 2 wherein the third polymer electrolyte comprises a polymer electrolyte selected from the group consisting of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte.
 4. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein the first polymer electrolyte is a liquid, and the cathode further comprises a binder.
 5. The electrochemical cell of claim 1, wherein the cathode further comprises one or more additives selected from the group consisting of carbon, silica, aluminum oxide, and titanium dioxide mixed together with the sulfur-bound cyclized polyacrylonitrile, the electronically conducting agent, and the first polymer electrolyte to form the cathode.
 6. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises a solid polymer electrolyte.
 7. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein the electronically conductive agent is selected from the group consisting of polythiophene, polyphenylene vinylene, polypyrrole, polyphenylene sulfide, and cyclized polyacrylonitrile.
 8. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte, comprises a material selected from the group consisting of polyethers, polyamines, polyimides, polyamides, poly(alkyl carbonates), polynitriles, polysiloxanes, polyphosphazenes, polyolefins, polydienes, and combinations thereof.
 9. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises a first monomer and a second monomer, wherein the first monomer is selected from the group consisting of ethylene oxides, acrylonitriles, phosphoesters, ethers, amines, imides, amides, alkyl carbonates, nitriles, siloxanes, phosphazines, olefins, dienes, and combinations thereof; and the second monomer comprises an electrophilic group, wherein the electrophilic group is selected from the group consisting of alkyl halides, alkyl sulfonates, alkyl phosphates, alkyl carbonates, oxiranes, aryl halides, and aryl sulfonates.
 10. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises a first monomer and a second monomer, wherein the first monomer is selected from the group consisting of ethylene oxides, acrylonitriles, phosphoesters, ethers, amines, imides, amides, alkyl carbonates, nitriles, siloxanes, phosphazines, olefins, dienes, and combinations thereof, and the second monomer comprises an olefinic group capable of polysulfide addition, wherein the olefinic group is selected from the group consisting of allyl groups and vinyl groups.
 11. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises a radical-generating species selected from the group consisting of bromine, ((2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxy groups, (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxidanyl) groups, and methacrylate groups.
 12. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte is selected from the group consisting of linear copolymers of carbonates and ethylene oxides and linear copolymers of carbonates, ethylene oxides, and thioethers.
 13. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises a polymer backbone and grafted side groups, wherein the polymer backbone is selected from the group consisting of polyethers, polyalkanes, polyphosphazenes, and polysiloxanes; and the grafted side groups are selected from the group consisting of carbonates, nitrile groups, and phosphonate groups.
 14. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises polyphosphorus esters.
 15. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises a cationic polymer that comprises counterions selected from the group consisting of Cl—, TFSI—, BETI—, ClO4—, BF4—, PF6—, triflate-, and BOB—.
 16. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises an anionic polymer selected from the group consisting of Nafion®, poly(styrene sulfonate), and polyvinyl sulfonate.
 17. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 wherein at least one of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte comprises a block copolymer comprising: a first lamellar domain comprising a plurality of first polymer blocks, the first polymer blocks comprising an ionically conductive electrolyte that comprises an ionically conductive polymer, an electrophilic group capable of nucleophilic substitution, and an electrolyte salt; and a second lamellar domain comprising a plurality of second polymer blocks, the second lamellar domain adjacent to the first lamellar domain, the second lamellar domain forming a structural portion of the electrolyte material.
 18. The electrochemical cell of claim 17 wherein the electrophilic group capable of nucleophilic substitution is selected from the group consisting of alkyl halides, alkyl sulfonates, alkyl phosphates, alkyl carbonates, oxiranes, aryl halides, and aryl sulfonates
 19. The electrochemical cell of claim 17 wherein the second polymer blocks comprise a material selected from a group comprising styrene, methacrylate, vinylpyridine, vinylcyclohexane, imide, amide, propylene, alphamethylstyrene and combinations thereof.
 20. A cathode comprising: a sulfur-bound cyclized polyacrylonitrile cathode active material; an electronically conducting agent; and a polymer electrolyte that contains a lithium salt; wherein the sulfur-bound cyclized polyacrylonitrile, the electronically conducting agent, and the first polymer electrolyte are all mixed together to form the cathode; and wherein the polymer electrolyte is selected from the group consisting of of alkyl halides, alkyl sulfonates, alkyl phosphates, alkyl carbonates, oxiranes, aryl halides, and aryl sulfonates, allyl groups and vinyl groups. 